2001 World Press Freedom Review_Overview of The Americas
By Michael Kudlak
In a year that was overshadowed by the tragic events of 11 September, the Americas was again the most dangerous region in the world to practice journalism. Eleven journalists were killed in Colombia, two in Mexico, two in the United States, and one each in Bolivia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Haiti and Paraguay. Scores of others received death threats or were harassed or physically attacked by corrupt officials, left or right-wing extremists, drug traffickers and other criminal elements seeking to prevent the media from exposing their activities.
When not confronted with violent attacks or threats, journalists faced legal, administrative and economic pressure from the authorities.
Journalists had to contend with a barrage of litigation, including charges of criminal defamation, libel and slander. In Latin America, so-called "desacato" or insult laws protecting the honour of public officials remained on the statute books in many countries. Moreover, new legislation adverse to freedom of expression and of the press, including laws that require journalists to possess degrees, licences or membership in special associations in order to exercise their profession, were passed by a number of legislatures.
In Argentina, Honduras, Nicaragua and Uruguay, among other countries, governments sought to intimidate the media by using official advertising to either reward or punish the media. Journalists in El Salvador, Guatemala and Mexico complained of a lack of access to public records and information. In several countries, notably Bolivia and Haiti, abuses by the police were a cause for concern. In recession-hit Argentina and Uruguay, plans to introduce a value-added tax (VAT) on the sale of newspapers and magazines drew widespread criticism from publishers and press freedom organisations who said the new tax would lead to the closing of many small and medium-sized publications and ultimately restrict freedom of expression.
Once again, Colombia proved to be the most dangerous country in the Americas to work in as a journalist. Particularly in the provinces, where vast areas are outside government control, journalists who attempt to expose corruption and other illegal activities, or report on the country's civil war, continued to face threats, harassment, physical attacks and even death. Eleven journalists were killed in 2001, at least six of them because of their work. Some 10 journalists were kidnapped or briefly detained by leftist rebels, while several others were forced to leave the country or go into hiding because of death threats. Three media outlets were bombed, injuring several persons and causing heavy damage.
In Brazil, the media in urban centres such as Rio de Janeiro and Săo Paulo were able to carry out their profession with considerable freedom, although those outside the major cities continued to face threats, harassment and physical attacks at the hands of local power brokers and criminals.
Fidel Castro's Communist government continued to clamp down on Cuba's beleaguered independent press. The authorities routinely harassed, threatened and detained journalists, often with the goal of "persuading" them to leave the country. Three journalists were released from Cuban prisons this year. Bernardo Arévalo Padrón, founder of the independent news agency Línea Sur Press, remained incarcerated, serving a six year prison term for "insulting" the president.
The Chilean media, long shackled by Gen. Augusto Pinochet's military dictatorship, was generally able to operate freely, although there were exceptions to the rule, most notably the insult and libel charges brought against three journalists of the daily El Metropolitano by Senator Francisco Javier Errázuriz, a former presidential candidate. The repeal of several provisions of the country's infamous State Security Law under the new "Press Law" enabled exiled journalist Alejandra Matus to return to Chile after living in the United States for more than two years, although journalists and press freedom groups expressed their concern about several troubling provisions in the new law.
In Haiti, the Western hemisphere's poorest country, there were a growing number of reports of harassment and attacks on journalists. The majority of these incidents were perpetrated by the police or supporters of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide's Fanmi Lavalas party, who increasingly viewed journalists as participants in the struggle for political power. One journalist, broadcaster Brignol Lindor, was hacked to death with machetes by a pro-government mob.
With the exception of Haiti and, of course, Cuba, the media in the Caribbean region were generally able to operate without interference, although some politicians, notably Prime Minister Keith Mitchell of Grenada, gave the appearance of wanting more restrictions on the press. In a keynote speech at the fourth Caribbean Media Conference, an annual gathering of media representatives from across the region, Mitchell spoke about his plans to regulate Grenada's media by imposing a government-initiated code of conduct and suggested that similar guidelines could be adopted by other Caribbean states. "The whole point is to have a society that is governed by rules and people understanding the limits of a certain mode of behaviour," he said.
In Mexico, where the election of Vicente Fox in July 2000 brought an end to 71 years of one-party rule by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), initial hopes that there would be greater respect for press freedom have yet to be justified. Journalists continued to be harassed, threatened and physically attacked. Two journalists were murdered near the U.S. border, a region where journalists investigating drug trafficking and official corruption are frequent targets by those seeking to prevent the media from reporting about their activities.
The departure of president Alberto Fujimori has led to a freer and more independent print and broadcast media in Peru. At its January board meeting in New Delhi, India, the IPI Executive Board unanimously agreed to remove Peru from the "IPI Watch List", citing the return of the television station Frecuencia Latina-Canal 2 to Israeli-born businessman Baruch Ivcher and the release of several journalists jailed on charges of "terrorism" as examples of progress since Fujimori left office. Nevertheless, journalists continued to report cases of threats, attacks, and legal pressure against the media, particularly at the hands of public officials in the country's interior.
Decision 1013 of the Venezuelan Supreme Court, which defined criteria for "timely, truthful and impartial information", increased concern in Venezuela over freedom of the press and President Hugo Chávez's hostile attitude towards the media. Chávez's aggressive rhetoric – he has called journalists "unpatriotic", "counter-revolutionary" and "enemies of the rule of law" – has contributed to a climate of intimidation and hostility towards the press; his frequent public diatribes are an incitement to physical violence against the media, journalists say. The Supreme Court's 12 June decision codifies the constitutional right to "truthful information" and could open the doors for the judiciary, which is dominated by Chávez supporters, to punish those media that criticise the policies of the president and his government. Those policies came increasingly under attack during 2001 as Chávez saw support for his radical reform plans dwindle.
In the United States, terrorism claimed the lives of two journalists. William Biggart, a free-lance news photographer, was killed in the 11 September terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York. Robert Stevens, photo editor for a tabloid newspaper publisher, was a victim of the anthrax outbreak that followed the 11 September attacks. Employees of at least four other media organisations, ABC, CBS, NBC, and The New York Post, were reportedly also exposed to the disease.
After the events of 11 September, fears that the Bush administration's "war on terrorism" could infringe on press freedom were soon validated as the nation found itself engulfed in a debate over the balance of national security, freedom of expression and patriotism. Two columnists lost their jobs after criticising President Bush's actions on the day of the attacks, and the host of a nationally-televised talk show was reprimanded by the White House for making what many considered an unpatriotic remark during his programme. These incidents were soon followed by the U.S. State Department's attempt to interfere in the editorial independence of both Voice of America and an independent television station based in another country, the satellite TV channel al-Jazeera.
In addition, the White House asked the five major television news organisations in the United States – ABC News, CBS News, NBC News, CNN and the Fox News Channel – to abridge any future videotaped statements from Osama bin Laden after they had broadcast, unedited, a taped message from bin Laden on 7 October. The White House also asked U.S. newspapers to refrain from publishing full transcripts of statements issued by bin Laden.
However, even before 11 September, free press groups expressed concern over the increasing number of assaults on press freedom in the United States, including the jailing of a journalist for refusing to hand over her interview notes to prosecutors and the decision of the U.S Attorney's office to subpoena another journalist's telephone records.
Both the United States and Canada passed anti-terrorism legislation – drafted in response to the terrorist attacks of 11 September – which many feared would curtail civil liberties, including freedom of expression and press freedom.